Endnotes

  1. Public Safety Assessment: Report on Public Safety, Crime Prevention and Victimization. 2000. Community Action Network. Recommendations included a call for “improvement, development and implementation of a comprehensive prevention method that directs services to youth at risk of offending,” and creation of “a balance between funding for incarceration and funding for prevention and intervention”.
  2. Uniform Crime Reporting, by Texas Department of Public Safety, detailing the number of arrests of school-age youth for Travis County, Texas for the 10 years 1998 through 2007.
  3. Fox, James Alan and Marc L. Swatt, The Recent Surge in Homicides involving Young Black Males and Guns: Time to Reinvest in Prevention and Crime Control; December 2008, Northeastern University; Boston, MA
  4. David Satcher, M.D., Ph.D., et al; Youth Violence: A Report of the U.S. Surgeon General. January 2001. Prepared by the Department of Health and Human Services under the direction of the Office of the Surgeon General in partnership with the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, the National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Mental Health, and the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Center for Mental Health Services.
  5. Smith, D.J. and Ecob, R. (2007), “An investigation into causal links between victimization and offending in adolescents”, British Journal of Sociology, 58: 633-659.
  6. “The Extent and Costs of Crime Victimization: A New Look.” NIJ Research Preview; January 1996. National Institute of Justice.
  7. Mark Cohen; The Costs of Crime and Justice. 2005 Routlledge, New York, NY.
  8. Carmichael, Dottie, Guy Whitten, and Michael Voloudakis. Study of Minority Over-Representation in the Texas Juvenile Justice System. October 2005. The Public Policy Research Institute, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas
  9. Redacted Discipline Reports for the 2006-2007 School Year, Austin Independent School District (AISD). Excerpts: “AISD took disciplinary actions such as in-school suspension, home suspension, and removal to the disciplinary alternative learning center in 37,853 cases with 18,797 students. This includes: 1) 12,080 ‘aggressive disciplinary acts’ committed including abusive conduct to students and adults, sex offenses, illegal weapons and robbery, theft and destruction by 9,159 students; 2) 13,542 ‘disruptive disciplinary acts’ including insubordination, disruption and throwing objects by 7,219 students; and 3) 16,148 ‘other disciplinary acts’ by 6,678 students.” During the same school year that 18,797 students were engaged in the school disciplinary system, 6,000 youth between the ages of 10 through 16 were taken into law enforcement custody and referred to the Travis County Juvenile Department.
  10. Olweus, D., Limber, S., & Mihalic,S. (1999) Bullying Prevention Program. In D.S. Elliott (Series Ed.) BluePrints for Violence Prevention: Book nine. Boulder, CO: Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence. Studies of generally aggressive behavior (as opposed to studies specifically of bullying behavior) also show similar results. While many aggressive children do not become violent adults, too many do. Criminologist David Hawkins and his colleagues reviewed studies showing the link between early and later aggression and concluded that “these studies show a consistent relationship between aggressiveness in males measured from age six and later violent behavior”. One study of ten and thirteen year olds showed that two thirds of the boys with high teacher rated aggression scores had criminal records for violent offenses by age 26. For the former see: Hawkins, J.D., Herrenkohl, T., Farrignton, D.P., Brewer, D., Catalano, R.F., & Harachi, T.W. (1999) A Review of Predicators of Youth Violence. In R. Loeber, & D.P., Farrington (Eds.), Serious and violent juvenile offenders: Risk factors and successful interventions (pp.106-146). London: Sage Publications. For the later, see: Stattin, H., & Magnusson, D. (1989). The role of early aggressive behavior in the frequency, seriousness and types of later crime. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 57, 710-718. Cited in Hawkins, J.D., Herrnnkohl, T., Farrington, D.P., Brewer, D., Catalano, R.F., & Harachi, t.W. (1999) A review of predictors of youth violence. In R. Loeber, & D.P. Farrington (Eds.), Serious and violent juvenile offenders: Risk factors and successful interventions (pp.106-146). London: Sage Publications.